Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage.

　　Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results. We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what cause malnutrition(營養不良), the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth. We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage to the cause and then relate that cause to another effect. This kind of reasoning is called, for short, effect to effect. It is quite common to reason through an extensive chain of causal relations. When the lights go out we might reason in the following causal chain: lights out-power off-refrigerator not working -temperature will rise-milk will sour. In other words, we diagnose (判定)a succession of effects from the power failure, each becoming the cause of the next.

　　注：1.causal 原因的，因果關系的

　　2.三種推理方式：從原因到結果、從結果到原因、從結果到原因再到另一個結果，第三種更重要

　　3.extensive 廣泛的，來自extend延伸 extensive reading 泛讀

　　4.In other words 換而言之 a succession of 一系列

　　5.本段講關系鏈

　　Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory(起輔助作用的). A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion ，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided , though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs(火花塞)or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.

　　注：intersection 交叉路口 inter+section

　　Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage.

　　Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results. We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what cause malnutrition(營養不良), the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth. We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage to the cause and then relate that cause to another effect. This kind of reasoning is called, for short, effect to effect. It is quite common to reason through an extensive chain of causal relations. When the lights go out we might reason in the following causal chain: lights out-power off-refrigerator not working -temperature will rise-milk will sour. In other words, we diagnose (判定)a succession of effects from the power failure, each becoming the cause of the next.

　　注：1.causal 原因的，因果關系的

　　2.三種推理方式：從原因到結果、從結果到原因、從結果到原因再到另一個結果，第三種更重要

　　3.extensive 廣泛的，來自extend延伸 extensive reading 泛讀

　　4.In other words 換而言之 a succession of 一系列

　　5.本段講關系鏈

　　Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory(起輔助作用的). A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion ，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided , though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs(火花塞)or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.

　　注：intersection 交叉路口 inter+section